The Sun Never Sets: A History of the British Empire

Chapter 1: Foundations If you were to look at Britain on a map, you'd be forgiven for thinking that its borders only encompass those of the British Isles. But if you look at the world as a whole, you will find that there are actually 14 overseas territories where the British government still holds power. From Gibraltar at the entrance of the Mediterranean to the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic, these are the last remaining possessions of Britain's once mighty Empire. At the height of its territorial control a little over 100 years ago, the British Empire covered one quarter of the globe's land mass and ruled almost a third of the world's population. It was the Empire on which the Sun never set. But how did such a small island nation become the largest and most powerful Empire the world has ever seen? This is the history of the British Empire.

Chapter 2: The Foundations of Empire The foundations of the British Empire were laid long before the state of Britain even formally existed. The dominant power in the British Isles throughout much of its history has been the kingdom of England, with a well-developed economy and military force to match. England during the medieval and early modern periods came to rule over the smaller independent kingdoms in Wales and parts of Ireland, although to the north, the kingdom of Scotland remained a fiercely proud and independent nation. By the early 17th century, Elizabeth I of England had issued several trading and exploration commissions to English adventurers with the intention of exploring and colonizing new territories yet to be claimed by other European powers. The likes of Sir Francis Drake and Sir Martin Frobisher claimed many lands in the name of England, but these were not followed up with settlements. The first English colony established in North America at Roanoke Island in 1585 failed dramatically, with the colonists mysteriously disappearing never to be seen or heard from again. Elizabeth also granted several Royal Charters to joint stock companies, established specifically for the purpose of developing overseas trade. Companies such as the Levant Company founded in 1592 and the East India Company founded in 1600 were granted monopolies on all English trade to and from these areas.

Chapter 3: The Union of Crowns When Elizabeth I died in 1603, the throne of England passed to James VI of Scotland. Upon his ascension to the throne, James became the king of both Scotland and England through the Union of the Crowns. However, the two kingdoms remained distinct and were ruled separately. As King James looked to build further on the attempts of his predecessor to establish overseas colonies, he aimed to govern them under one of three types of colony structures: Crown Colonies, Charter Colonies, and Proprietary Colonies. An important yet often overlooked development in England's overseas expansion is that of the Plantation of Ulster, which saw Protestant settlers from Scotland and England transported to parts of the north of Ireland during the early years of King James's reign. This model of organized colonization would form the blueprint for future English colonial expansion, with many of the leaders of the Ulster Plantation later becoming involved in establishing other colonies in the New World.

Chapter 4: Colonial Expansion Throughout the 1600s, the kingdom of England expanded its overseas colonies in North America and the Caribbean. Some were entirely new ventures, whereas others were annexed from rival foreign powers like New York, which was seized from the Dutch in 1665. England also significantly developed its trading networks in Africa and the East Indies with the building of factories and fortified trading posts. A critical component to this mercantile success was the creation of the Royal African Company in 1660, which over the subsequent decades would become the leading participant in the transatlantic slave trade. Scotland also began to establish overseas colonies of its own, with attempts in Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Carolina, though almost all these attempts ended in failure.

Chapter 5: The Great Game An emerging threat to Britain's imperial ambitions during the 19th century came from the Russian Empire, which wished to expand its territorial possessions and sphere of influence into Central Asia and the Mediterranean to fill the void of the collapsing Ottoman Empire. When Russia invaded the Ottoman-controlled Balkans in 1853, Britain alongside France entered the Crimean War in support of the Turks, fearing that Russia could threaten their colonial interests in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Victory at Trafalgar not only eliminated the threat of invasion for Britain but also secured the uncontested supremacy of the Royal Navy for the next 140 years. By the time the Napoleonic Wars were drawn to a close in 1815, the victorious Allied Coalition of which Britain was a part secured further territory from the defeated French, Spanish, and Dutch, who had been part of Napoleon's French Empire.

Chapter 6: The Jewel in the Crown India was brought under direct British rule in 1858 and became the most valuable possession within the Empire, colloquially named as the jewel in the crown. An emerging threat to Britain's imperial ambitions during the 19th century came from the Russian Empire, which wished to expand its territorial possessions and sphere of influence into Central Asia and the Mediterranean to fill the void of the collapsing Ottoman Empire. When Russia invaded the Ottoman-controlled Balkans in 1853, Britain alongside France entered the Crimean War in support of the Turks, fearing that Russia could threaten their colonial interests in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Victory at Trafalgar not only eliminated the threat of invasion for Britain but also secured the uncontested supremacy of the Royal Navy for the next 140 years. By the time the Napoleonic Wars were drawn to a close in 1815, the victorious Allied Coalition of which Britain was a part secured further territory from the defeated French, Spanish, and Dutch, who had been part of Napoleon's French Empire.

Chapter 7: The Winds of Change Gradually throughout the 1940s, 50s, 60s, and 70s, the colonies and dominions of the empire were granted their independence from Britain in what was recognized as the Wind of Change. Almost 400 years of British colonial history came to an end, although almost all these newly independent nations did not sever ties with Britain completely and agreed to join the political association named The Commonwealth. With 14 of these nations also retaining the British monarch as their respective head of state, perhaps what many see as the final and most symbolic representation of the end of the British Empire came in 1997 when Britain formally handed over Hong Kong to China. The legacy of the Empire remains with us to this day, as the English language is the most widely spoken on Earth and British culture practices and customs remain universally popular. Modern Britain itself can even be seen as a microcosm of the Empire, with people of almost every race, nationality, religion, and culture that were once under British rule now living on the very island that began the journey of empire all those years ago.